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No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Introduction Communicable diseases are not novel for the world; governments have learned from different infectious diseases in the past, such as Human Immunodeficiency Virus HIV , Tuberculosis TB , Ebola, and Spanish influenza a century before. Figure 2. Research framework. Source: Self extract. Table 2. Descriptive statistics. Table 3. Differenced panel GMM estimates. Table 4.
The amount of time depends on which medicine you are prescribed. Put together a traveler's first aid kit with specific items geared to your destinations. Add enough extra medicines and supplies to last a few days past the duration of your trip. Your healthcare provider can help you identify what should be included in your kit. Research emergency medical care during your trip and what medical evacuation services are available in case of serious illness.
Contact your health insurance plan to find out what is covered in other countries. Take 2 copies of your medical insurance information with you and keep them in separate areas. If you are traveling as part of an organized tour, contact the agency regarding medical services available and any additional insurance that might be available. If you have any infectious disease symptoms when you return home, contact your healthcare provider and describe where you have traveled.
Symptoms can include fever, rash, joint pain, diarrhea, belly pain, and red eyes. However, each person is unique and your symptoms may be different. If you become ill when you return home, it is best to check with your healthcare provider. Health Home Conditions and Diseases. According to the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, emerging infectious diseases are commonly defined as: Outbreaks of previously unknown diseases Known diseases that are rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range in the last 2 decades Persistence of infectious diseases that cannot be controlled.
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View at: Google Scholar C. View at: Google Scholar T. Gordon, L. Dadayan, and K. Mendoza and J. Anser, Z. Yousaf, M. Khan et al. View at: Google Scholar P. Movalli, O. Krone, D. Osborn, and D. S96—S, Huda, U. Rabbani, and F. It is a communicable disease because it is caused by an infectious agent and it develops as a result of transmission of the infectious agent. Outpatient refers to someone who comes to a health facility seeking treatment, but does not stay overnight.
An inpatient is someone admitted to a health facility, who has at least one overnight stay. Communicable diseases are the main cause of health problems in Ethiopia. As you can see in Table 1. You may not recognise them all you will learn about them in later study sessions , but you probably mentioned malaria, respiratory infections, parasitic diseases, pneumonia and diarrhoea.
A clinical diagnosis is based on the typical signs and symptoms of the disease, without confirmation from diagnostic tests, e. Table 1. These and other communicable diseases will be discussed in detail in later study sessions of this module. Not all communicable diseases affect a particular group of people, such as a local community, a region, a country or indeed the whole world, in the same way over a period of time.
Some communicable diseases persist in a community at a relatively constant level for a very long time and the number of individuals affected remains approximately the same.
These communicable diseases are known as endemic to that particular group of people; for example, tuberculosis is endemic in the population of Ethiopia and many other African countries. By contrast, the numbers affected by some communicable diseases can undergo a sudden increase over a few days or weeks, or the rise may continue for months or years.
When a communicable disease affects a community in this way, it is referred to as an epidemic. Malaria is endemic in some areas of Ethiopia, and it also occurs as epidemics due to an increase in the number of cases suddenly at the beginning or end of the wet season. The health problems due to communicable diseases can be tackled by the application of relatively easy measures at different levels of the health system.
Here, we will use some examples at the individual and community levels, which are relevant to your work as a Health Extension Practitioner. Some measures can be applied before the occurrence of a communicable disease to protect a community from getting it, and to reduce the number of cases locally in the future. These are called prevention measures.
For example, vaccination of children with the measles vaccine is a prevention measure, because the vaccine will protect children from getting measles. Vaccination refers to administration of vaccines to increase resistance of a person against infectious diseases.
Once a communicable disease occurs and is identified in an individual, measures can be applied to reduce the severity of the disease in that person, and to prevent transmission of the infectious agent to other members of the community. These are called control measures. In this context, treatment of measles is considered a control measure. Later in this Module, you will learn that the widespread use of insecticide-treated mosquito nets ITNs is recommended as a prevention measure for malaria, which is transmitted to people by mosquitoes.
If you promote the effective use of mosquito nets in your community, how would you expect the number of malaria cases to change over time? An increase in the effective use of mosquito nets should reduce the number of cases of malaria.
Transmission is a process in which several events happen one after the other in the form of a chain. Hence, this process is known as a chain of transmission Figure 1. Six major factors can be identified: the infectious agent, the reservoir, the route of exit, the mode of transmission, the route of entry and the susceptible host.
We will now consider each of these factors in turn. Tables 1. The genus name is written with its initial letter capitalised, followed by the species name which is not capitalised. In the example above, Plasmodium is the genus name and falciparum refers to one of the species of this genus found in Ethiopia.
There are other species in this genus, which also cause malaria, e. Plasmodium vivax. Infectious agents can have varying sizes.
Some, such as Plasmodium falciparum and all bacteria and viruses, are tiny and are called micro-organisms , because they can only be seen with the aid of microscopes. Others, such as the ascaris worm Ascaris lumbricoides , can be easily seen with the naked eye. The different types of infectious agents are illustrated in Table 1.
Protozoa are micro-organisms made up of one cell; for example, Plasmodium falciparum. Bacteria are also micro-organisms made up of one cell, but they are much smaller than protozoa and have a different structure; for example Vibrio cholerae , which causes cholera. Viruses are infectious agents that do not have the structure of a cell.
Though not as common as causes of communicable disease in humans, other types of infectious agents include fungi e. Many infectious agents can survive in different organisms, or on non-living objects, or in the environment. Some can only persist and multiply inside human beings, whereas others can survive in other animals, or for example in soil or water.
The place where the infectious agent is normally present before infecting a new human is called a reservoir. Without reservoirs, infectious agents could not survive and hence could not be transmitted to other people. Humans and animals which serve as reservoirs for infectious agents are known as infected hosts. Two examples are people infected with HIV and with the bacteria that cause tuberculosis; these infectious agents persist and multiply in the infected hosts and can be directly transmitted to new hosts.
Animals can also be reservoirs for the infectious agents of some communicable diseases. For example, dogs are a reservoir for the virus that causes rabies Figure 1. Diseases such as rabies, where the infectious agents can be transmitted from animal hosts to susceptible humans, are called zoonoses singular, zoonosis. Non-living things like water, food and soil can also be reservoirs for infectious agents, but they are called vehicles not infected hosts because they are not alive.
You will learn more about them later in this study session. Bacteria called Mycobacterium bovis can be transmitted from cattle to humans in raw milk and cause a type of tuberculosis.
In this example, what is the infectious agent and the infected host or hosts? Before an infectious agent can be transmitted to other people, it must first get out of the infected host. The site on the infected host through which the infectious agent gets out is called the route of exit. Some common examples are described below. The routes of exit from the respiratory tract are the nose and the mouth. Some infectious agents get out of the infected host in droplets expelled during coughing, sneezing, spitting or talking, and then get transmitted to others Figure 1.
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